1.0 INTRODUCTION
In March 2002, City Council approved the Fleet Emissions
Reduction Strategy (FERS[1]). This strategy was structured such that
implementation could be carried out in phases, over a number of years, with
progressive achievements in reducing exhaust emissions from the City fleet.
Council also included a requirement that the FERS, as part of the
Corporate Climate Change Program, be reviewed regularly to update the strategy
based on new research and technological advancements, and on the availability
of other government funding sources.
There was a further requirement to report back to Council at a minimum
of once every term of Council.
Between 2002 and today, much has
occurred pertaining to air-borne emissions. The state of the technology for
reducing emissions has evolved as a result of tighter regulated limits for
exhaust pollutants. As well, the
commitment to green house gas (GHG) reductions on a national scale has advanced
through various federal initiatives.
This document represents the first review and update of the FERS. The objective and scope of this document are
to:
1)
Introduce the
national commitment for reducing GHG and the regulated limits for exhaust emissions
relative to the City fleet.
2)
Present
traditional methods employed by the City for controlling and reducing fleet
emissions (this was omitted in the first FERS submission).
3)
Report progress
on the 2002 FERS.
4)
Describe recent
technological advances in emissions reduction.
5)
Present the
recommended FERS, updated for 2004.
2.0 EMISSIONS REDUCTION -- NATIONAL COMMITTMENT AND REGULATION
2.1
BACKGROUND ON TARGETED
EXHAUST EMISSIONS
Air quality and climate change are
significantly impacted by a number of key pollutants, including those targeted
for further reduction by the FERS, viz.
·
carbon
dioxide (CO2),
·
oxides of
nitrogen (NOx),
·
sulphur oxides (SOx),
·
particulate
matter, including visible smoke (PM),
·
volatile
organic compounds (VOC), including hydrocarbons (HC), and
·
carbon
monoxide (CO).
These pollutants, with the exception of
CO2, are collectively referred to as criteria air
contaminant (CAC) emissions.
The harmful effects of CAC
emissions on human health are well documented by Environment Canada[2]
and others. One of the more visible
aspects of these pollutants is the formation of smog. The smog experienced in Ontario is composed largely of
ground-level ozone and PM. Ozone is
created when NOx and VOC combine in the presence of sunlight and fine
particles. Smog causes significant
health problems -- children, the elderly and people with respiratory and heart
conditions are particularly vulnerable. Additionally, the presence of sulphur in diesel
fuel and gasoline results in the formation of SOx upon combustion, which
produces acid rain, can cause respiratory problems, and contributes to smog
formation.
With respect to climate change, the scientific
community recognizes that rising greenhouse gas (GHG) concentrations in the
atmosphere have a widespread
and dramatic effect on the earth's climate. While climate change is often perceived as a global issue,
activities that contribute to GHG pollution take place at a local level, and
consequently the cumulative actions taken within our communities to reduce
greenhouse gas emissions can make a difference.
Because of the importance and widespread
impact of air quality and climate change, global communities, including Canada,
have undertaken a number of initiatives aimed at reducing GHG and other
air-borne pollutants. The
transportation sector is one of the largest contributors to air pollution in
Canada, including man-made greenhouse gases.
Emissions of CO2 --
at 95% -- dominate the GHG
produced by the transportation sector, with nitrous oxides (N2O) and
methane (CH4) making up the balance. Therefore, the City’s strategy of pursing the acquisition of
low-emission vehicles is consistent with programs undertaken at the national
level and, from an emission reduction viewpoint, could ultimately provide the best
environmental “bang for the buck”.
2.2 THE KYOTO
PROTOCOL
In 1997, at the United Nations
Framework Convention on Climate Change
in Kyoto Japan, 160 countries from around the world, including Canada,
committed to reducing their greenhouse gas emissions {Environment Canada -
GHG - Kyoto Protocol[3]}. This international agreement on climate
change, which is known as the Kyoto Protocol, was ratified by Canada in
December of 2002 {Government
of Canada ratifies Kyoto Protocol.[4]} It commits Canada to reducing its greenhouse
emissions to six percent below 1990 levels by the period 2008 to 2012, a decrease of
from 140 to 185 mega tonnes (20-25%) below business-as-usual projections for
2010.
As
described in following sections of this report, GHG reductions achievable by the
implementation of the FERS will make a significant contribution to the
realization of the national commitment to the Kyoto Protocol.
2.3 REGULATED EXHAUST
EMISSIONS
In Canada, the authority for regulating
on-road vehicle emissions was transferred to Environment Canada in 2000, when
the Canadian Environmental Protection Act (CEPA) came into effect. However, Canadian regulations are expected
to continue their alignment with the stringent US Environmental Protection
Agency (EPA) emission standards. Consequently,
the U.S. 1998 and 2004 requirements -- to be followed by the 2007 regulations
-- impose progressively more stringent restrictions on new vehicles produced
for the Canadian market, as exemplified in Table 1 below.
Table 1: Regulated
Emission Standards for Diesel Heavy Duty Engines in Urban Buses
grams
per mega joule (grams per brake horsepower-hour)
|
Year
of Introduction |
HC |
CO |
NOx |
PM |
NMHC* |
NMHC
+NOx |
|
1987 |
0.48 (1.3) |
5.77 (15.5) |
3.98 (10.7) |
0.22 (0.6) |
|
|
|
1998 |
|
|
1.49 (4.0) |
0.019 (0.05) |
|
|
|
2004 |
|
|
|
|
n/a n/a 0.19 (0.5) |
0.89 (2.4) 0.93 (2.5) |
|
2007 |
|
|
0.074 (0.20) |
0.004 (0.01) |
0.052 (0.14) |
|
Notes
* non-methane hydrocarbons
For 2004:
·
the HC criterion
was stated more correctly as NMHC,
·
NMHC was combined
with NOx, and
·
an option allowing
slightly higher NMHC+NOx applied, if NMHC was held to 0.5 g/bhp-hr.
Complementing Canadian and US regulations for on-road vehicle emissions
are those pertaining to the sulphur content in fuels. In Canada, sulphur in gasoline will be limited to an average of
30 parts per million (ppm) in 2005 (with an interim limit of 150 ppm in 2002),
while sulphur in on-road diesel will be limited to 15 ppm in 2006. In the US, the requirements are similar and
include the 15-ppm limit for diesel fuel in 2006.
Alignment of Canadian emission requirements with those of the US reflects the highly integrated nature of North American vehicle manufacturing and promotes cost-effective advancement of emission control technologies. The FERS addresses both the US EPA and CEPA emission regulations that essentially target air pollution and acid rain, as well as the GHG emission reductions championed by the Kyoto Protocol. As described in this report, traditional fleet management methods and progress in the implementation of the FERS have resulted in significant emissions reduction, and more will result from the continued implementation of these programs.
3.0 TRADITIONAL METHODS FOR
EMISSIONS CONTROL AND REDUCTION
3.1
DIESEL AND GASOLINE ENGINES
The bulk of the City fleet operates on diesel fuel. As a result, approximately 95% of the automotive fuel consumed by the City is diesel, with transit buses using over 80% of the diesel fuel consumed. The approximate distribution of CO2 -- hence GHG -- produced annually by the City fleet is illustrated in Figure 1 below. As shown, the transit buses dominate the GHG emitted from the fleet and consequently most of the initiatives to reduce emissions target transit operations.
|
Figure 1: Estimated Distribution of Fleet GHG Annual
Emissions (from the
Logtech report submitted with the 2002 FERS) 1 ton = 0.907 metric
tons (tonnes) = 907.2 kg |
Because of their superior energy efficiency, diesel engines produce less CO2,
CO and HC compared to their gasoline counterpart, the
result of which is an annual GHG emission savings of over 12,000 tonnes for the
City, by using diesel fuel.
Historically, however, diesel engines have emitted comparatively higher
levels of PM and NOx. Much of the
City’s traditional and short-term efforts have gone into reducing PM and NOx pollutants.
3.2 VEHICLE RETIREMENT AND REPLACEMENT
4.0 REVIEW OF
THE FLEET EMISSIONS REDUCTION STRATEGY
In this section, implementation
achievements are reported and proposed changes to the FERS are introduced. New objectives are rationalized from the
context of technological advancement, as well as the emissions reduction
impact. Additionally, opportunities for
external funding are introduced, where appropriate. The time periods have also been adjusted to reflect the current
state of the various technologies and the projected availability of City
resources necessary for continued implementation. The results of ongoing monitoring of other technologies for
emissions reduction are also reported.
4.1 2002
APPROVED FERS OBJECTIVES
The 2002 FERS was comprised of several
initiatives for reducing exhaust emissions from the City fleet, over three
major time periods. These are
summarized below:
Ø Short-Term (1-2 years)
(i) Participate in ethanol-blended diesel
(E-diesel) trials.
(ii) Monitor bio-diesel trials, as an option to
E-diesel.
(iii) Retrofit older technology buses with
catalytic converters, subject to the availability of external funding. (Green funds and special programs
were to be investigated as part of this initiative, and applications made as
appropriate.)
(iv) Convert
all City gasoline fuel sites to ethanol-blended gasoline (E-10), at an
approximate cost of $80,000.
(v)
Conduct
preparatory work to implement the mid-term strategy.
(vi)
Initiate a
comprehensive “No Idling” program for all City vehicles.
Ø
Mid-Term (5-10 years)
(i) Convert the urban transit bus fleet to hybrid diesel-electric technology.
(ii)
Conduct
preparatory work to implement the long-term strategy.
Ø
Long-Term
(20 years)
(i) Convert the urban transit bus fleet to
zero (exhaust) emission, fuel-cell technology.
Detailed information pertaining to the 2002 FERS, including
the background reference material, can be found on the City website {City
of Ottawa Emissions Reduction Strategy[8]
- Item No. 6 of Transportation and Planning Committee Report 20}.
4.2 SHORT-TERM
(within 3 years)
There
are a number of projects described in this section that are currently
underway, or planned within the next few years, which target reduction of fleet emissions in the short-term. They include the initiatives
originally approved in the 2002 FERS, as well as one new initiative that has
been added to reflect fuel technological advances and a more stringent
regulatory environment.
4.2.1 Ethanol Blended Diesel Fuel Withdrawn.
E-diesel is blend of diesel fuel and ethanol, with a blend stabilizer. In the 2002 FERS, the City supported the ethanol-blended diesel trial that was lead by the Canadian Renewable Fuels Association (CFRA). However, data from laboratory testing and other sources indicated that, from an environmental benefit perspective, gains in reduced CAC emissions would likely be marginal at best. The measured emission reductions of CAC’s were not substantial, totalling only 2% in a recent laboratory test. Additionally, CO2, which is the bulk of vehicle exhaust gases, showed an increase along with CO and total HC.
Other drawbacks identified with the implementation of E-diesel refuelling of the City fleet included:
· significant cost and infrastructure changes to accommodate reclassification of fleet diesel fuel from a Class II (non-flammable) to a Class I (flammable), as a result of the subsequent change in fuel properties;
· the likely voiding of warranties by the engine manufacturers, if E-diesel fuels were used in newly acquired vehicles;
· an increase in fuel consumption of about 2%;
· the diversion of limited resources from more environmentally promising projects; and
· a lack of other government funding for the E-diesel project.
Fuels derived from renewable biological sources for use in diesel engines are known as biodiesel fuels. Biodiesel is made by chemically combining any natural vegetable oil or fat with an alcohol, such as methanol or ethanol, and can be used in its pure form or as a blend with normal diesel fuel.
The Montréal biodiesel trial[10], a CRFA initiative, was completed by the Société de Transport de Montréal (STM) in 2003, after a demonstration period of one year. The trial required 500,000 litres of biodiesel in two blends; i.e., B5 and B20, which had 5% and 20% respectively of biodiesel mixed in regular diesel fuel.
The Montréal project demonstrated that biodiesel is a viable environmental fuel in areas where temperatures can reach as low as –30°C. The environmental benefits were significant. Relative to buses using regular, low-sulphur diesel fuel, CO2 emissions using biodiesel were reduced by 1%, whereas reductions for the CAC emissions ranged from a low of 5% for NOx to a high of 32% for CO. Biodiesel typically has the added advantage of a higher lubricity and cetane rating, which generally translates into less engine wear and cleaner exhaust emissions. There were no implementation-related changes required for any of the STM buses, including no requirements to review or change servicing and maintenance procedures. Overall, the STM is sufficiently convinced of the benefits of biodiesel that it is considering a full conversion of its urban transit bus operations once the per litre cost becomes affordable in that province.
Implementation of biodiesel refuelling in Ottawa could provide a significant reduction in CAC emissions as well as over 1,000 tonnes of GHG annually, assuming the entire City diesel fleet was involved. Implementation would essentially be immediate, if a local supplier guaranteed uninterrupted delivery to the City. However, the most significant drawback relates to costs – currently a premium of from 4 to 8 cents a litre over regular diesel fuel would be expected. As a result, conversion to biodiesel is considered to be cost prohibitive in Ottawa, at the present time.
City staff are, however, continuing to monitor the cost of biodiesel for possible future implementation, as well as other developments in this area. For example, in western Canada, a research and demonstration project is currently underway to evaluate the commercial use of a 5% blend of canola biodiesel in the City of Saskatoon {City of Saskatoon - BioBus[11]}. Characteristics to be assessed include emissions, fuel consumption, and engine wear. This project is funded by the federal government, the Saskatchewan Canola Development Commission and others, with the City of Saskatoon providing an in-kind contribution of its buses and other resources.
1. Particulate
trap, consisting of a filter positioned in the
exhaust stream that collects particulate emissions as the exhaust gases pass
through the system. Diesel particulate
filter systems can reduce PM emissions by 50-90 % and cost about $7,500
per unit. Particulate traps were first
tested in the City fleet in 1991 and are currently installed in the City’s
newest articulated buses.
2. Oxidation
catalysts utilize an inner substrate structure, coated with catalytic precious metals to initiate a chemical reaction
in the exhaust stream thereby oxidizing pollutants into water vapour and other
gases. Oxidation catalysts
typically reduce PM by 20%, CO by 40% and HC by 50%, and cost about
$2,400. The first City trials of
catalytic devices started in 1994 and they have been installed on the City’s
new vehicles since 1997.
3.
Exhaust Gas Recirculation (EGR)
retrofits recycle a portion of the exhaust back to the engine air intake effectively
diluting the oxygen content in the combustion chamber thereby lowering flame
temperature. As a result, NOx formation
is reduced by as much as 40%. The EGR
stream must be reduced or eliminated under high load conditions, to prevent an
air-fuel ratio at or below the smoke limit; i.e., the minimum ratio required
for complete combustion. EGR retrofits can cost up to $15,000, and have the added disadvantage of
producing more soot, because of the reduced oxygen concentration and subsequent
low temperature burn. New city
articulated buses are equipped with EGR systems.
City staff are currently considering a new retrofit initiative launched by Environment Canada in collaboration with CUTA (Canadian Urban Transit Association), aimed at reducing emissions from a limited number of older transit buses. The scope of the program is the replacement of the conventional mufflers on Detroit 6V92 series engines, for model years 1990 though 1993, with Diesel Oxidation Catalyst (DOC) mufflers. The City currently has in revenue service over 150 candidate buses. This program would require the City to absorb the cost of the installations, while CUTA would provide the DOC mufflers, funded by Environment Canada. The City will participate to the maximum extent allowed by the program.
4.2.4 Ethanol Gasoline Progress achieved.
Ethanol -- or
ethyl alcohol -- can be produced from agricultural feedstocks such as corn,
wheat and barley, or from renewable cellulosic materials such as forestry waste
and agricultural residues. Low-level ethanol blends can be used in
most gasoline engines with no engine or fuel system modifications required, and
is commercially available in the Ottawa region. The environmental benefits of using ethanol-blended gasoline
include a net
reduction in ground-level, ozone-forming emissions.
Additionally, significantly less HC, CO and CO2 are emitted
in vehicle applications when compared to
conventional gasoline; i.e., 7%, 20-30% and 4% respectively, for
E-10 gasoline -- a blend of 10 per cent ethanol and
90 per cent gasoline.
In
2002, the City began conversion of the fleet gasoline refuelling sites to E-10
{City
of Ottawa News Release[12]
- 5 June 2002}. To date, 12 sites have
been converted, which represents the major portion of gasoline dispensed from
City fuel sites. There have been no
reported vehicle problems resulting from the use of E-10 gasoline. By
shifting from the use of traditional gasoline to E-10 at all of the refuelling
sites, City vehicles will expel about 240 fewer tonnes of CO2 into
the atmosphere each year, in addition to reducing City smog.
Conversion of City sites will result in an annual recurring
cost of approximately $80,000, based on a $0.0251/L premium for E-10
gasoline. There is also minor one-time
site improvement costs for tank cleaning and filter installations at each
refuelling site.
4.2.5 Preparatory
Work to Implement the Mid-Term Strategy Completed.
The centrepiece of the mid-term component of the FERS is the procurement of hybrid diesel-electric buses, beginning in 2007. Section 4.3 provides information related to our continued monitoring and re-assessment of this technology, and implementation progress in other jurisdictions.
Preparatory work to implement hybrid technology in Ottawa has been completed since the FERS was launched in 2002. A phased approach to hybrid bus implementation, the Hybrid Bus Implementation Plan[13] {Item No.1 of Corporate Services and Economic Development Committee Report 55}, was approved in principle by City Council in September of 2003.
The primary objective of Phase 1 - the Hybrid Technology and Feasibility Study - is to assess the feasibility of the program and to select, through an independent study, the appropriate hybrid diesel-electric technology that will best meet the requirements for transit service. The configuration of the hybrid design and the selection of certain components will then determine the type and level of activities applicable to subsequent phases of the plan. The scope of the feasibility study will include:
(i) demonstration of available hybrid bus designs and operational trials,
(ii) analysis of the costs (capital, operating and life cycle) and performance results,
(iii) recommendation of the hybrid configuration for subsequent acquisition,
(iv) identification (and costing) of the major infrastructure changes required, and
(v) continued public and government consultations and notifications.
City staff recently applied for federal funding assistance for the Phase 1 study via the Green Municipal Enabling Fund (GMEF)[14]. This fund is accessible through the Federation of Canadian Municipalities. It provides federal government grants to support feasibility studies that target projects showing potential for significant improvements in environmental performance. GMEF grants cover up to 50 per cent of eligible costs, which for the Phase 1 study are estimated to be $250,000. The application is a two-step process. The project summary was initially accepted by the FCM in October of 2003, as meeting the mandatory criteria of the Funds. A detailed application was subsequently submitted by City staff thereby allowing a complete evaluation of the proposed project. It is anticipated that the submission will be considered for final approval by the Green Funds Council in April 2004.
In preparation for the Phase 1 study, letters were sent out in December of 2003, to hybrid diesel-electric drive and bus suppliers, inviting them to participate in the Ottawa demonstration in 2004. All known North American hybrid builders were solicited including Orion Bus Industries, builders of the New York City hybrids, and New Flyer Industries, the City’s current conventional bus supplier and winners of the recent Seattle hybrid bus order (Section 4.3.1). Suppliers of both series and parallel hybrid drive configurations were solicited, in addition to E-traction, a European supplier of a hybrid drive that offers direct drive via electric motorized wheel hubs. Response to this initial invitation has been very positive.
A decision point will be reached at the end of Phase 1 whereby City Council will be requested to approve continuation of the Hybrid Bus Implementation Plan, based on results of the subject feasibility study, which will be presented in a subsequent detailed report. Continuation of the implementation plan would then be executed in the following three remaining phases:
Phase 2 - Hybrid Bus Acquisition
(2005-2007): Phase 2 pertains to hybrid bus
acquisition and is comprised of a series of tasks similar to those applicable
to a conventional diesel bus acquisition.
Because new technologies are being introduced, the detailed hybrid
configuration and design will only be known through actual procurement, before
infrastructure changes are initiated.
Phase 2 will begin in the latter half of 2005, with the preparation of
the specification and issuance of the Request for Proposal. Once a supplier is selected through the
competitive bid process, the procurement will be paused for about one year to allow
preparation activities of Phase 3 to take place, before production and
deliveries of the hybrids begin in 2007.
Phase 3 - Preparations to Introduction
(2006-2007): Phase 3 of the plan
relates to the infrastructure changes that will be necessary to support the
selected hybrid technology, including preparing the work force for this
transition. Personnel training and the
preparation of supplementary support documentation will be required to
accommodate the specialized skills needed to maintain the hybrid fleet; e.g.,
battery charging and maintenance procedures.
Operator training will be required to accommodate the performance
characteristics of the selected hybrid, such as regenerative braking. This phase will also include the acquisition
of hybrid specific support equipment such as electric motor repair tools,
battery chargers, etc. Additionally,
bus storage and garage modifications will probably be necessary to support the
hybrid buses.
Phase 4 - Hybrid Bus Performance Analysis (2007-2008): The objective of Phase 4 of the implementation plan is to validate the performance characteristics of the selected hybrid bus design against the requirements specification. A performance analysis will be carried out using an evaluation plan and test matrix developed during Phase 2. A comparison to data collected from in-service hybrids in other cities will also be completed. An important part of this phase will be performance assessment under Ottawa winter conditions.
Further information pertaining to the hybrid program,
including the expected costs, can be found in the previously referenced City
link to the Hybrid Bus Implementation Plan.
Current efforts also include the investigation of potential external
funding sources for Phases 2 through 4 of the planned project.
4.2.6 Execution
of the Hybrid Bus Implementation Plan
New initiative.
The
inherent evolution resulting from Council’s approval in principle of the Hybrid
Bus Implementation Plan is incremental execution of the plan. As such, implementation becomes a new
short-term objective of the FERS. The
phased approach of the plan ensures that appropriate consultations, with public
and other governments, can be completed.
It also ensures that, either through the budget cycle or related reports
to Council, implementation will be subject to proper levels of examination and
that Council approval will be required to proceed. For example, Phase 1 of the plan was approved through the
2004 Budget review as a new program 902996 called “Hybrid Bus Implementation
Plan”.
4.2.7 Corporate
Vehicle and Equipment Idling Policy Completed.
Since the launch of the FERS, the City has
implemented a Corporate
Vehicle and Equipment Idling Policy[15],
to reduce vehicle idling time thereby alleviating unnecessary emissions. This policy was predicated on the
significant reduction in emissions achievable by a relatively simple
operational change, and by the potential additional impact of private vehicle
owners in the City following this example.
If each City vehicle could reduce idling by as little as 5
minutes per day, the City would save as much as 143,000 litres of fuel per
year, which would reduce GHG emission by
approximately 384 tonnes, at a fuel cost savings of about $80,000.
The main requirement of this policy is for City
vehicles to be shut off whenever idling time is expected to exceed one
minute. For the transit buses, special
procedures are in place to prevent engine overheating and failure to start, and
to accommodate a space heating requirement.
On hot days (above 25°C), when the waiting period exceeds 10 minutes,
the bus is shut down after idling for 3 minutes. On mild days, buses are idled for one minute, and then shut
down. On cold colds (below -5°C),
the buses are not shut down.
The idling policy was supported by a public relations
campaign that included bus advertisement, application of decals on all City
vehicles and exposure on the City web site.
4.3 MID-TERM (4 to 10 years)
The mid-term component of the FERS described in this section includes the
initiatives
originally approved in the 2002 FERS.
Additionally, monitoring of compressed natural gas as an alternative
fuel option has continued since the 2002 FERS and an updated assessment of this
option is also presented in this section.
4.3.1 Introduction of Hybrid Diesel-Electric
Technology into the Transit Fleet Progress
achieved.
Since the 2002 FERS
was approved, City staff have continued to monitor the developments of hybrid
diesel-electric technology and to assess their performance in other
jurisdictions.
New York City Hybrid Bus Experience
The most
significant user of hybrid buses to date has been New York City Transit (NYCT).
In 1998, NYCT
began operating 10 heavy-duty, 40-foot, hybrid diesel-electric buses, from
Orion Bus Industries (prototype Model VI), as part of a pilot project sponsored
by the US Department of Energy.
Subsequent to the successful pilot project, the next generation Orion
VII hybrid passed the structural and in-service qualification testing required
by NYCT, clearing the way for deliveries of 325 hybrid buses beginning in
2003. Currently, about 125 Orion VIIs
are in revenue service in New York City.
The diesel engine of a hybrid bus is
smaller than a standard transit diesel engine and consequently fuel consumption
and exhaust emissions are reduced.
Similarly, during periods of acceleration, the electric drive typically
dominates thereby providing improved emission reduction and fuel economy. Additionally, zero emissions can be obtained
for short durations on certain hybrid configurations, by running on battery
power. Hybrid buses also employ
regenerative braking technology, which decreases fuel consumption by recycling
energy that otherwise would be lost during braking. Current indications are that improvements in exhaust emissions and fuel
economy will be substantial with hybrid buses, as demonstrated in tests
performed by Environment Canada, using the hybrid and conventional diesel buses
in service at NYCT.
The following
hybrid performance improvements were determined by Environment Canada:
·
CO2 was reduced by 38%,
·
49% reduction for NOx,
·
60% reduction for PM,
·
38% reduction for CO, and
·
fuel consumption was reduced by 59%.
On an individual bus basis, these
results show a CO2 reduction of over 1 kg for every mile driven, for
the hybrid bus as compared to the conventional diesel. For the Ottawa transit bus fleet, a 38%
reduction in carbon dioxide emissions would translate to an annual reduction of
about 32,000 tonnes of emitted GHG, once the fleet is completely converted to
hybrid technologies. This reduction
represents about 30% of the CO2 that the City’s gasoline and diesel
fleets produce annually, and over 1% of all greenhouse gases emitted annually
in the City of Ottawa.
For the New York City buses,
fuel consumption, determined across all test cycles during dynamometer
emissions testing, showed a potential reduction for the hybrid buses of from 23
to 64%, compared to diesel buses of the same age. For a new hybrid fleet in Ottawa, a potential reduction in fuel
consumption of at least 25% can be reasonably expected. Additionally, the potential for temporary
zero-emissions capability could reduce fuel consumption beyond the
expected 25%.
Recent Hybrid Transit Bus Procurement
Several
communities in the US have operated hybrid buses as part of demonstration and evaluation
programs. However, the most significant
new procurement is in Seattle Washington, where 213 new 60-foot
articulated buses, equipped with a General Motors Allison drive system, are
being provided by New Flyer Industries, with first deliveries expected in
2004. These buses will also be required
to provide service through a downtown transit tunnel, where quiet operation and
reduced emissions are required.
Costs and
Projected Recovery
The higher capital costs of hybrid
diesel-electric buses remains as a significant deterrent to widespread
use. For example, the cost premium for
both the New York City Orion VII hybrids and Seattle’s New Flyer hybrids was
about 45%. The primary contributors to
the added costs are: (i) a more sophisticated electronic control system, (ii)
battery packs for energy storage, (iii) the electric drive motor(s), and (iv)
supplier recovery of R&D costs. It
is expected that costs will decline as the technology matures and as more units
are produced. It is also likely that
hybrid buses will have lower operating costs, primarily because of reduced fuel
consumption and longer brake lining life. The fuel savings alone are quite
significant indicating that the City could recoup its additional capital costs
within the lifetime of the bus.
However, partially offsetting cost savings will be more expensive
component costs, including battery replacement. Additional infrastructure costs are also required to accommodate
the electric drive system. These
infrastructure changes, however, would also be required for the long-term
component of the FERS.
One of the objectives of the Phase 1 study is to better define these costs including a comparison of both capital and operational costs for each diesel-electric design to be demonstrated. Additionally, City staff will continue to seek maximum government subsidies at both federal and provincial levels, to meet the incremental cost for the hybrid buses. The introduction of the municipal gas tax refund program for transportation is one example that could benefit hybrid bus implementation.
Recommend Continued Implementation
Hybrid diesel-electric buses are regarded as a transitional vehicle, as they easily co-exist with today’s conventional diesel buses, but also allow a more seamless transition to the planned zero-emissions fleet of the future (Section 4.4). That is, because of their use of diesel fuel and compression-ignition engines, many refuelling, operational and maintenance activities will be unchanged. Conversely, infrastructure changes required to accommodate the new electric drive train, including new maintenance skills and health/safety expertise, will also be applicable to zero-emission fuel cell vehicles.
Because of these transitional characteristics, hybrid diesel-electric buses remain as the most practicable means for the City to meet CAC and GHG emissions requirements. This conclusion is also consistent with the significant hybrid bus investments undertaken by both New York City and Seattle. Consequently, work has progressed on the planning for the initial procurement of 46 hybrid diesel-electric buses, beginning in 2007 (Phase 2 of the Hybrid Bus Implementation Plan).
4.3.2 Preparatory Work
to Implement the Long-Term Strategy Not Initiated.
Preparatory work to implement
fuel cell technology in the transit fleet has not been initiated because this
technology is not yet commercially available.
However, as described in Section 4.4, City staff will continue to
monitor developments in this area.
Remaining
Barriers to Commercialization
The most significant
challenge to the commercialization of fuel cell technology continues to be
infrastructure. Hydrogen is the world’s
most abundant fuel and is found in several forms including water, oil, natural
gas and biomass. However, providing a
cost-effective source of pure hydrogen, which must compete favourably with
today’s petroleum-based fuel supplies, is a significant challenge. The economical and safe delivery and storage
of hydrogen, either as a compressed gas, a super-cooled liquid, or as a solid
-- in metal hydride form -- is a considerable barrier to commercialization.
With regards to the
fuel cell stack, cost is still a significant factor, primarily because of the
expensive polymer membranes and precious metals that are required for the
catalysts. Whilst the cost has
decreased dramatically in recent years, further reductions are required before
the stacks are commercially viable.
Additionally, the performance, reliability and durability of fuel cell
systems have yet to be proven, particularly in a transit bus environment. However, the ongoing bus demonstration
projects that incorporate fuel cells bode well for the continued development of
this technology.
4.3.3 Compressed Natural Gas (CNG) Alternative Fuel Not recommended.
CNG is presently the most common alternative to conventional diesel-powered buses, particularly in the U.S. CNG was assessed in the 2002 FERS, but was considered to be unviable primarily because of infrastructure capital costs; i.e., $22M - $100M per site. Other factors that tended to rule out CNG were:
§ on-board storage limitations for CNG, which is dependent on high-pressure gas cylinders that are heavy and expensive, and require periodic inspection,
§ the special training and licensing requirements for mechanics, and
§ the storage and maintenance safety requirements necessitated because of the lighter-than-air characteristics of natural gas.
Additionally, the advantage of CNG buses relative to conventional diesel is diminishing because of the emergence of clean diesel technology (Section 3.2), the added capital cost of CNG buses (i.e., a premium of up to 18%), and because of the rising costs of natural gas. As well, as a transition vehicle leading to zero exhaust emissions using electric propulsion based on fuel-cell technology, conversion to CNG offers no strategic advantage over hybrid diesel-electric.
The results of emissions testing of NYCT buses, as performed
by Environment Canada, are discussed in Section 4.3.1. A similar emissions testing program for the
U.S. Northeast Advanced Vehicle Consortium (NAVC), using the West Virginia
University chassis dynamometer laboratory, was also conducted on the NYCT
buses; this program included a comparison to alternative fuel CNG buses. The results of NAVC testing[16]
demonstrated that emissions reduction using hybrid-diesel electric technology
is generally comparable to CNG technology.
In fact, in most-cases, the hybrids set the performance benchmark for
all buses tested. The NAVC results also
demonstrated that, when operated under severe duty cycles, the performance of
the hybrid buses was significantly superior to that of the CNG buses; e.g., a
90% reduction in CO emissions using hybrid as compared to CNG, a 70%
improvement in fuel economy and a 20% reduction in CO2.
In summary, City staff’s recommendation not to pursue alternative fuel CNG buses has not changed since the 2002 FERS. This decision is also consistent with reports that the City of Toronto will not be adding to their fleet of 150 CNG buses, primarily because of the high cost of building new CNG refuelling terminals, and because of major CNG bus maintenance problems[17]. Instead, the Toronto Transit Commission is optimistic that their next major bus procurement will feature hybrid diesel-electric technology.
4.4 LONG-TERM (11 to 20 years) Not Initiated.
4.4.1 Zero
Emission Fuel Cell Technology
The long-term component of the FERS is conversion of the
transit bus fleet to zero tailpipe emissions, using electric propulsion based
on fuel cell technology. City staff have continued to monitor the developments
in fuel cell technology for propulsion systems.
Hydrogen fuel cells continue to be recognized as the most promising technology for powering the world’s fleet of ground vehicles and eliminating dependency on fossil fuels. Electric propulsion based on fuel cell technology is based on the separation of hydrogen electrons (using a catalyst and atmospheric oxygen) to produce electricity, the by-products of which are water and heat. When fuelled with pure hydrogen, either in a liquid or gaseous form, a fuel cell emits no pollutants and in particular no GHG.
4.4.2 Fuel Cell Technology: Recent Developments
Significant progress
has been made in the development and demonstration of this technology. Arguably the most noteworthy new
demonstration transit bus project is the European Fuel
Cell Bus Project[18], where Ballard
Power Systems - of Burnaby,
BC
- is supplying 205 kW fuel cell engines, for use in 30 Mercedes-Benz Citaro
buses. These buses will be operated
under revenue service conditions in ten different European cities, and as of
December 2003, have operated for more than 5,700 hours and have traveled over
83,000 kilometres[19].
The federal government is also
investing in the development of fuel cell technology for transit buses. In 2002, Natural Resources Canada announced
a three-year project to develop and deploy new fuel-cell hybrid bus technology {Natural
Resources Canada - News Release 2002/142[20],
Natural
Resources Canada - News Release 2002/142a[21]}. For this
project, Hydrogenics will develop a 180 kW fuel cell system for integration
into a New Flyer bus. Integration of
the fuel-cell system and performance testing at Winnipeg Transit is expected to
be completed by March 2005.
Fuel cell development in the automobile sector parallels the
transit bus industry, as exemplified by the 2003 Tokyo Motor Show, where the
greatest number of fuel cell vehicles ever assembled under one roof were
showcased[22]. Original equipment manufactures displaying
fuel cell vehicles included all of the major Japanese manufactures, in addition
to North American suppliers. General
Motors is perhaps the most “ambitions or optimistic with their
commercialization plans, which may happen toward the latter part of the
2010-2020 time frame.”
Long-Term Feasibility
Given the dramatic
environmental and potential economic benefits of using hydrogen fuel, it is
highly probable that current barriers to commercialization will be resolved in
the long-term. Consequently, it is
recommended that the conversion of the City transit bus fleet to fuel cell
technology remains as the long-term component of the 2004 FERS.
5.0 CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
Ø Short-Term (within 3 years)
(i) Monitor the cost of biodiesel for possible future implementation in the transit fleet, if economically feasible.
(ii) Participate in future government-led retrofit programs -- targeting older buses in the fleet -- that employ proven technologies for emission reductions, subject to the availability of City resources and external funding.
(iii) Implement the multi-phased plan for conversion of the transit bus fleet to hybrid diesel-electric technology
Ø Mid-Term
(4-10 years)
(i) Introduce hybrid diesel-electric buses in transit service.
(ii) Conduct preparatory work to implement the
long-term strategy.
Ø
Long-Term
(11-20 years)
(i) Convert the transit bus
fleet to electric drive vehicles when fuel-cell technology is fully developed
and commercially available.